Methods of Cooking

METHODS OF COOKING

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON FOODS

Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water, plus small amounts of other compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins, pigments (coloring agents),and flavor elements.It is important to understand how these components react when heated or mixed with other foods.You will then be better equipped to correct cooking faults when they occur and to anticipate the effects of changing cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or ingredient proportions. In other words,when you know why foods behave as they do,you can understand how to get them to behave as you want them to.

CARBOHYDRATES

1. Starches and sugars are carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods in many forms.They are found in fruits,vegetables,grains,beans,and nuts.Meats and fish also contain a small amount of carbohydrate.
2. For the cook,the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are caramelization and gelatinization.

·         Caramelization is the browning of sugars.The browning of sautéed vegetables and the golden color of bread crust are forms of caramelization.

·         Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell.This is a major principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production of breads and pastries.

Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour or starch will be thinner if it contains acid.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE FIBER

1.      Fiber is the name for a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plants.Fiber cannot be digested.

2.      The softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is, in part, the breaking down of fiber.

3.      Sugar makes fiber firmer.Fruit cooked with sugar keeps its shape better than fruit cooked without sugar

4.       Baking soda (and other alkalis) makes fiber softer.Vegetables should not be cooked with baking soda because they become mushy and lose vitamins

HEAT TRANSFER

The transference of heat is of great importance to the culinarian.  It is this movement of heat from one surface, product, etc., to another that is a determining factor in the quality of any product produced. In order to understand how to gain positive effects from the transfer, you need an understanding of what heat is.

Heat

Simply put, heat is a form of energy.  When a substance gets hot and absorbs energy, the molecules have more energy than when cold.  The molecules then vibrate and bounce off of one another and expand in volume.

Methods of Heat Transfer

The  process  of  cooking requires the transfer  of  heat  energy throughout  the food by a combination of  conduction,  convection and radiation.

Conduction

Heat is transferred through solids by conduction.  This  takes place in the heating of 

  1. Solid food    

  2. Cooking equipment Solid materials such as metals which allow heat energy to  spread easily through them are termed good conductors

Convection

Heat is transferred through liquids and air by convection.   This takes  place in the heating of          1. The cooking medium

 2.  The  air inside ovens.

Radiation

Heat can be transferred by radiation. Radiation involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as infra-red waves and microwaves.  The waves pass from their source and are absorbed into the food.

COOKING METHODS

DRY HEAT METHODS

•           Grilling

•           Roasting

•           Spit roasting

•           Baking

•           Deep frying

•           Shallow frying

•           Barbecuing

•           Microwave

Moist -Heat cooking method

•           Boiling

•           Blanching

•           Par boiling

•           Poaching

•           Steaming

•           Pressure cooking

•           Enpapillote

•           Sous vide

Combination cooking method

•           Braising

•           Stewing

•           Pot roasting

Ø  ROASTING

The  term  roasting  is given to three  different  techniques  of cooking.  In all cases the term refers to a dry method of cooking involving either the addition of fat/oil or the use of foods with a high fat content.  The three techniques are:  1. Spit-roasting    2.  Pot-Roasting     3.  Oven Roasting

1.      Spit Roasting

This  is  the traditional use of the term roasting  and  is  only applicable  to  cooking  meats.   It  could  be  more  accurately described  as  slow grilling on it involves cooking  by  radiated heat,  on a spit, over a very fierce glowing fire.  The  meat  is prevented  from drying out by the constant rotation of  the  spit which  allows the meat to baste itself with hot fat  which  oozes from the surface.

2.      Pot Roasting (Poêle')

Pot roasting uses a cooking utensil with a fight fitting lid.  It is not a true roast because it uses moist heat. i.e. steam trapped under  the  lid of the closed utensil.  The food is  cooked  with vegetable called  matignon  and butter (the  only  type  of  fat  suitable) or mirepoix.  Just before it is fully cooked the lid is removed  to allow  the steam to escape and the dry heat to colour  the  food.  The juices and veg an used to make the accompanying sauce.   Pot roasting is suitable for duck, poultry, game.

Note:  Matignon:   An  edible  mirepoix that  is  often  used  in Poele'ed dish.  Typically, matignon includes two parts of carrot, one  part  celery,  one  part leeks. One  part  onion,  one  part  mushroom and one part ham and bacon.

3.      Oven Roasting

Food is cooked in an oven by dry heat at quite high temperatures.  A small amount of fat or oil is used to stop the food drying out.   Heat transfer  Radiation, Convection, Conduction

Advantages

1.      Minimal fire risk

2.      Meat juices from the meat can be used for gravy which  enhance the flavor

3.      Gives a variety to the menu

Disadvantages

1.      Constant attention is required

2.      Losses of nutrients like amino acids

Safety Rules

1.      The  correct degree of cooking of meats  must  be  accurately measured  to  protect the consumer from  parasitic  worms  and pathogenic bacteria.

2.       Care  should  be taken when handling oven  trays  to  prevent spillages of hot fat.

3.        Safe practices should be observed in  operational  procedure, clothing and footwear.

Ø  BAKING

This  is  a  dry  method of cooking in  an  oven.   The  texture,  surface,  volume of baked goods are modified by steam.   This  is produced  by  the food as it cooks or can be injected in  to  the oven if required.

Heat transfer

The  heat  source in the oven radiates infrared heat  energy  and also heats the air in the oven cavity directly and also heats the air in the oven cavity directly be producing convection currents.  The surface of the food will absorb heat from both  sources  and also from the hot trays and racks by conduction.

Suitable foods and cooking procedures

The process of baking is usually associated with flour products; egg and milk dishes; fruit; vegetables and fish.  The baking of meat usually involves fat and is therefore classified as roasting  illustrates the application of the three methods to different foods and shows the cooking procedures for the main groups of baked foods.

Advantages:

1.      Flavour and texture are improved.

2.      Variety of dishes can be made

3.      Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved e.g. bun and bread.

Disadvantages:

Special equipment and skill are required.

Safety Rules

1.      Care is needed in moving heavily loaded trays, into and out of ovens  to prevent burns and scalds from the hot and  steamy  oven atmosphere.

2.      The  food-handler  should take care when removing  baked  items from trays/bins/moulds.

3.       Safe  practice should be observed in  operational  procedure, clothing and footwear.

Ø  GRILLING_AND_BARBECUING

Grilling is a fast, dry method of cooking which uses the  intense heat  radiated  by an electrical element, gas flame,  or  glowing charcoal.   The  heat sources can be either above  or  below  the food or both.

Barbecue:  When  the process takes place.  Out of  doors  it  is usually  referred  to as 'Barbecuing'.  The heat source  in  this situation  is  usually glowing charcoal, a gas flame or  an  open wood fire, positioned below of the food.

1.      Grilling  over the heats:  This is cooking on  greased  grill bars with the help of fat over direct heat only first class  cuts of meat is used to grill in this methods.

2.      Grilling under the heat:  In this method food is put in a tray as dish and kept under heat pans.  Salamander is one of the  best example for this type of griller.

Advantages

1.      Grilling is a quick, easy method of cooking

2.      There is little loss of nutrients and less fat is used.

3.      Grilled food are tasty and easy to digest

Disadvantages

1.      Grilled  foods  cannot  be  successfully  reheated  and   are difficult to keep warm without drying  and toughening.  They  need to be served straight away.

2.      Only tender cuts of meat, which are generally more  expensive, can be used.  However other foods such as vegetables, kababas are suitable for grilling.

Safety Rules

1.      Do not leave food unattended whilst cooking.  It will quickly over cook and burn.

2.      Keep floor areas free from spilt grease as this can lead  to slippery and dangerous flours.

3.      Exercise great care when adjusting grill bars  or  salamander racks.  They an heavy and contain

4.      hot food and oil.

5.      Exercise great care when adjusting grill bears or  salamander racks.  They are heavy and contain hot food and oil.

6.      Safe  practice should be observed in  operational  procedures clothing and footwear.

Ø  FRYING

Frying  is a quick method of cooking food in hot oil or fat,  but requires  care  and attention to  produce  satisfactory  results.  Frying gives food a good flavour and colour.

Methods of Frying

1. Shallow Frying : This is a dry method of cooking.  Foods to  be shallow  fried  are cooked in a small amount of fat  or  oil  the level of fat can be any where from halfway up the side of a food.

Heat Transfer

The food cooks by direct heat conduction from the metal  surface.  The  frying medium may aid the process if a sufficient  depth  is used or merely serve as a thin lubricating layer to stop sticking and burning.

2. Deep Frying: Deep frying involves the complete immersion of food in hot fat or oil.  It is not in contact with any surface of the frying vessel.

Heat transfer conduction and convection.

a)      Sauteing: Sauteing is tossing the food in the pan during cooking so that it cooks  and browns on all sides.  The name comes from  the  French for 'to jump'.  Some times the food is described as sauteed  even if  it is too big to be tossed in the pan (Sauteed Chicken)  this simply means it has been turned so that it is browned all over.

b)      Stir-fry: A  traditional  method of Chinese cookery used  for  fast  frying vegetables  and  thin  strips of meat  in  a  specially  designed utensil  termed a wok.  The base of the wok is rounded with  high sides so that only a small amount of food is in contact with  the heat  and  there  fore, stirring is the  only  action  needed  to control browning.

c)      Meuniers: Literally this term means 'in the style of a miller's wife'.   It describes a method of cooking which applies mainly to fish.  Fish cooked  in this way is seasoned, lightly floured (Presumably  the connection  with the miller) and shallow fried in butter or  oil.  The  fish is sprinkled with lemon juice, garnished with slice  of lemon and finished with beurre noisette and chopped parsley.

Advantages

1.      Taste is improved, along with the texture.

2.      Increases the calorific value.

3.      Fastest method of cooking.

4.      In shallow fat frying the amount f oil consumption can be controlled.

Disadvantages

1.      Some times the food may become oily or soggy with too much absorption of oil.

2.      More attention is required while cooking and care should be taken to avoid accidents.

3.      The food becomes very expensive.

4.      Fried food takes long time to digest.

5.      Repeated use of heated oils may produce harmful substances and reduce the smoking point.

Safety Rules

1. All  operators must be trained not only to use the  equipment, but also in fire drill procedure.

2. The correct level of frying medium should be used.

3. The fryer must not be overloaded as this may cause hot oil/fat overflow.

4. Drain  wet  foods  and then dry with  absorbent  paper.   This prevents  splatters of hot fat

    reaching the skin of  the  food handler.

5. Pans  must  be  moved carefully on the stove  top  to  prevent splattering and burns.

Ø  MICROWAVE_OVENS

The basic microwave oven:

All  microwave  ovens consist of the same basic unit.   This  may incorporate some of the additional facilities.  When the  machine is turned on, the microwaves are produced by the magnetron.  They travel  along the wave guide and enter the oven, as  shown  here. The  stirrer  fan distributes them evenly  throughout  the  metal cooking cavity.  The specially designed safety door prevents  any microwave  leakage while the oven is in operation.  The air  vent allows any steam to escape during cooking.

HOW MICROWAVE OVENS WORK

The  mechanics of a microwave oven are really very  simple.   The machine  is plugged into the regular domestic electricity  supply but  converts  the electrical energy emitted  to  electromagnetic waves by passing it through a magnetron vacuum tube.

1.Reflection

Microwaves  are reflected by metal; they cannot pass through  it. Microwaves  bounce  off the metal surfaces  (walls,  ceiling  and floor) of the oven cavity in a regular pattern.

2. Transmission

Microwaves  are  transmitted by other materials, such  as  glass, ceramics,  paper and some plastics.  Microwaves can pass  through these substances without heating them up.

3. Absorption

Microwaves are absorbed by the moisture molecules in foods.   The microwaves  can only penetrate to about 5 cm (2 in) but the  food then heats through by conduction.

Advantages

1.      They cook many foods in about 1/4^th of the time necessary on a gas burner.  There is no wastage of energy.

2.      It saves time in heating frozen foods. Thawing can be done in minutes or seconds

3.      Only the food is heated during cooking.  The oven or the utensil does not get heated except under prolonged heating periods.

4.      Flavour and texture do not change when reheated in a microwave oven.

5.      Loss of nutrients is minimised.

6.      After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easier as food does not stick to the sides of the vessels.

7.      Food gets cooked uniformly.

8.      Preserves the natural colour of vegetables and fruits.

Disadvantages

1.      Due to short period of cooking, food does not become brown unless the microwave has a browning unit.

2.      It is not possible to make chapati or tandoori rotis in it.  It cannot cook soft or hard boiled eggs.  Deep frying necessary for puris, jalebis, pakoda, vadas cannot be done in it.

3.      The short cooking time may not give a chance of blending of flavours as in conventional methods.

4.      The operator should be careful in operating the microwave oven since any exposure to micro wave oven causes physiological abnormalities.

5.      If the food is greater than 80 mm the central portion is out of range of the microwave radiation will only heat by the normal slow process of conduction. It will be relatively uncooked while the exterior accessible to microwave is cooked in minutes or seconds.

MOIST METHODS OF COOKING

1.      POACHING

This  is  a moist method of cooking in which food  is  placed  in liquid which is brought to and maintained at, a temperature  just under  boiling-point (65⁰ to 90⁰ C).   The cooking liquid may  be water,  milk, stock, wine, or court bouillon.

Heat Transfer

Conduction and Convection

Depth Liquid

1.      Shallow – Poaching: Most  foods are poached by this method.  A minimum amount  liquid is  added and this is later used to make an  accompanying  sauce.  Greased  paper or a lid can be used to trap moisture and  prevent drying out.

2.      Deep – Poaching: When  poaching some items, more liquid is used than in shallow  - poaching.  In the case of fruits this is because they have to  be completely  covered  to prevent discolouration.  In  other  cases with eggs, a depth of water is needed to prevent food sticking to the cooking dish (or) other pieces of food during cooking.

Method Poaching

1.      Heat the liquid to boiling point, then reduce the  temperature that there is no movement.

2.      Gently lower the food in to the cooking liquid (The  exception is when cooking whole large fish, as it is placed in the  cold liquid and drought up to temperature)

3.      Allow the food to remain in the liquid until cooked.

4.      Remove  the  food and reserve the liquid if it is used  for  a sauce.

Advantages

1.      The  application  of heat is gentle, so  foods  with  delicate texture may be cooked without breaking up.

2.      Poached foods are easily digested

3.      No  fat  needs to be added to cook the food an  advantage  for people who want to reduce the amount of fat in their diet.

Disadvantages

1.      Poaching is not particularly suitable for large pieces of food

2.      There  is some flavour and nutrient loss from the  food the cooking liquid.

3.      There is little development in colour and flavour.

Safety Rules

1. Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food to prevent spillages.

2. Care  should be taken in handling dishes which an  brought  to temperature  on the top of the stove and thin  transferred  to the oven.

2        BOILING:

This is a moist method of cooking in which foods are immersed  in liquid  which  is either at or brought to  boiling  point.   This liquid may be water stock, milk or court bouillon.

Heat Transfer

Heat is conducted through the equipment surfaces to the liquid in contact with them.  The liquid transfers this heat to the food by convection currents.  Heat is absorbed by the surface of the food and passes through it by conduction and the food cooks.

Techniques associated with boiling

1. Simmering

This is gentle heat treatment which causes small bubbles to  rise slowly  from the liquid.  The food remains whole, with  a  better texture  and  more and flavour.  The water does not  evaporate  so quickly  and less vigilance is required to maintain  the  correct level of liquid.

2. Parboiling

Parboiling  is  the boiling of food until it  is  only  partially cooked.   The  food is placed in boiling water for a  short  time from  1  to  5 minutes, or until the outside  become  soft.   The cooking process is then completed using another method.  Potatoes for example may be parboiled to reduce roasting time and to  help brown them and give a crisper texture.

3. Blanching

Blanching  does involve placing food in boiling water.   Food  is plunged  into boiling water for 1 to 2 minutes depending  on  the size  of  the  food and then removed.   It  is  then  immediately refreshed in cold water.

Advantages

1. Tougher, cheaper cuts of meat may be used.

2. Heat transfer is fairly rapid and efficient

3. The food is not likely to burn unless the water is allowed  to evaporate completely.

4. The food remains moist and is not likely to dry out and become hard.

Disadvantages

1. Flavour and some colour may be lost from the food into liquid.

2. Loss  of nutrients (especially water-soluble vitamins) may  be high.

Safety Rules

1. The  boiling  utensil should be matched with the  quantity  of food  to  be cooked.  If not enough space is  available  water will spill as it boils.

2. The  food handler should take care when placing foods into  or removing items from, boiling liquids.

3. When reducing liquids adequate ventilation should be available to  remove steam from the atmosphere.  Condensation can  cause slippery floors and dampness on electrical appliances.

3.STEAMING

This  is  a  moist method of cooking using  steam.  The  food  is  surrounded by steam under

varying degrees of pressure.

1.      Atmospheric Steamers: This equipment is vented so that steam can escape and stop pressure building up.  This a slow method of cooking but has advantages which are described later.

2.      Convection Steamers:  The steam is forced around the oven at high speed by means of a fan or steam jets.  Just as in forced convection ovens, this method increases the heat transfer at the surface of the food and reduces cooking time.

Advantages

1. Healthy - No fats or other additives an needed for cooking.

2. No risk of burning food.

3. Ideal for those with poor digestions

Disadvantages

1. Can be slow

2. Warm-up  time  of large industrial steamers is  slow  and  not economical unless it is fully filled.

3. Meat and fish juices may be lost (They should be  incorporated  in to sauces wherever possible).

4.PRESSURE COOKING

Pressure cooking makes use of steam from water boiled in a sealed container.   The boiling point of water varies according  to  air pressure.  The higher the pressure the higher the boiling  point.  Under normal atmospheric conditions at sea level, water boils  at 100 C.  Inside a pressure cooker the pressure can be increased so that  water  will boil at 120 C steam from the boiling  water  is driven through the food, cooking it very quickly.

Procedure for Pressure Cooking

1.      Always  check that the water level in the base of the  steamer is adequate for operation.

2.      Ensure  that  there is a tight seal before applying  heat  and check  that there is a steady flow of steam escaping from  the value.

3.      Refer to manuals for cooking time.

4.      When  cooking is completed, always allow the pressure  steamer to  return  to normal atmospheric.

Advantages of Pressure Cooking

1.      Fast

2.      Energy-Saving

3.      Fewer nutrients are lost in cooking water

Disadvantages

1. Easy to over cook (or) Under cook

2. Greater Shrinkage of meat

Safety Rules

1. Before  use,  check that the water level is correct  for  self generation equipment.

2. Switch  off  all  steam controls and  reduce  pressure  before opening.

3. Stand  behind  the door as it opens to strield the  body  from steam.

5.SOUS – VIDE

Sous – vide is a system of catering where food is vacuum packaged, either before or after cooking, and then rapidly cooled to chilling temperatures (0-3^¡ C).  It is then stored/transported at this temperature with subsequent regeneration as required.

Sous-vide production systems

Food is placed in vacuum packs and stored at chill temperatures of 0^¡ C – 3^¡ C until required.  This type of vacuum pack, which is to be later heated, is termed a cook pouch.  The recommended life of cooked food chilled in a pouch is max 21 days ( 1989)  and therefore adds a considerable extension to normal cook-chill systems.  As figure shows the food can be cooked traditionally and then vacuum packed or can be placed raw in the pouches and then cooked.  This latter cooking method is termed vacuum cooking and results in a lower weight loss and keeps the food intact during cooking.  Some pouches are designed so that after filling they can be dipped in hot water for a few seconds to heat-shrink the loose material and folds of the package to form a ‘second skin’.  This is particularly useful for meat cookery.

To make sure temperatures are correct for serving and cooking, small temperature probes are used.  A single probe is used to monitor the temperature of one item in a batch of similar dishes.

Foods prepared in this way are handled with the same equipment and care as for cook-chill.  Government guidelines for hygiene are applicable.  Below is therefore only an account of the packaging of the sous vide product and its uses.

Advantages:

1.      Ability to produce mealsin advance means better deployment of ataff and skills.

2.      Vaccum packed food can be mixed in cold store without the risk of gross contamination.

3.      Reduced labour costs at point of service.

4.      Full flavour and texture is returned as food cooks in its own juices.

5.      Economics on Ing.

Disadvantages

1.      Extra cost of vaccum pouches and vaccum paking machine.

2.      All portions ina  batch must be identcally sized to ensure even results.

3.      Extremely tight management and hygieneic controls an dimparative.

6.EN PAPILLOTE

Cooking Foods en Papillote :

The term “en papillote” comes from the french word for papillote because the parchment  traditionally used for wrapping up the food  somewhat butterfly  In this variation of steaming, the main item and accompanying ingredients are encased in parchment paper and cooked in a hot oven. The main item rests on a bed of herbs, vegetables, or sauce and the combination of these ingredients and their natural juices serves as the sauce.  The steam created by the food’s natural juices cooks the food.  As the steam volume increases, the paper puffs up.

Mise en Place

Assemble all ingredients and preparations for en papillote:

·         Main item(s)

·         Broth or sauce

·         Additional or optional flavouring, seasoning, or garnishing items

·          

In addition to the preparation techniques for steaming, there is an optional first step.  Sear thicker meat cuts in advance to ensure that they will be adequately cooked during the relatively short cooking times associated with his technique as well s to provide additional color and flavor.

Vegetables can be included to provide moisture for steam.  They also add color, flavor, and texture.  Cut the vegetables into a fine julienne or dice.  Sweat or blanch the vegetables, if necessary, to ensure that they will cook in the same amount of time as the main item.

Prepare herbs and spices according to type.  Some herbs may be left in springs; others are cut into a chiffonade or minced. Have a prepared sauce, reduced heavy cream, wine, or citrus juices on hand if your recipe calls for them.

Assemble all equipment necessary for cooking and serving;

·         Parchment paper

·         Sizzler platters or baking sheets

·         Serving pieces

Method

Assemble the packages

The method for cutting the parchment and making the individual packages.  Cut the parchment into a heat shape large enough to allow the food and any additional ingredients to fit comfortably without overcrowding.  The paper needs to have enough “give” to expand during cooking. Oil or butter the paper on both sides to prevent it from burning.

Place a bed of aromatics, vegetables, or sauce on one half of the heart and top it with the main item.

Fold the empty half of the heart over the main item and fold and crimp the edges of the paper to form a tight seal.

Place the bag on a preheated sizzler platter and put it in a very hot oven

The hot oven temperature may need to be carefully monitored, since delicate foods such as fish fillets can be overcooked quickly at a high temperature.  A thicker cut may be best if cooked slowly at a moderate temperature and “puffed” in a very hot oven.

Foods prepared en papillote should be cooked until they are just done. This is difficult to gauge without experience, since you cannot apply the senses of sight and touch in determining doneness.  If the item has been cut to the correct size or if it has been partially cooked before being placed en papillote, it should be done when the bag is very puffy and the paper is brown.

COMBINATION METHODS OF COOKING

1. BRAISING

Description of the Process

This is a moist method of cooking using a tightly lidded  cooking dish.  The commodity is usually placed on a bed of root vegetable and herbs with an appropriate quantity of liquid or sauce.

Braising represents a combination of the following processes

1. Stewing - Less liquid involved

2. Pot-roasting - Water, not fat, main ingredient in cooking liquid.

3. Steaming - Water Vapour trapped under lid.

Heat Transfer

Conduction and convection

Method of Braising

·         Braised  dishes are classed on either white or  brown.   Brown  braising  involves the colouring of meat in hot fat  (searing) before cooking.

·         For brown braising Espagnole is diluted with an equal quantity of stock and used on the cooking liquor (e.g. braised beef)

·         White braising involves white stock and natural Ingredients.

·         Marinating: Some meats are soaked in flavoured alcohol or acid to tenderise and improve flavour and colour, prior to cooking.

·         Glazing:  Some  of meat dishes are glazed towards the  end  of cooking period.  The lid is taken off the braising pot and the cooking  liquor  is  spooned over  the  commodity  at  regular internals.  The procedure called "MASKING".  The water present in the liquid evaporates from the surface of the food  leaving behind a gelatinous satiny glaze.

Advantages

1. Tougher, Cheaper cuts of meat may be used.

2. Less amount of fat is used in the cooking.

3. There is little loss of nutrients.

Disadvantages

1. Cooking time is long and slow

2. Over cooking will produce discolouration and disintegration of the product.

Safety

1.      Hot liquids and utensils can be the cause of serious burns.

2.      Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food to prevent spillages.

3.      Care should be taken when removing the lid of braising pans to avoid scalds from escaping steam.

4.      Safety  practice should be observed in operational  procedure, clothing and footwear.

2.STEWING

This  is  a long, slow, moist method of cooking  in  which  small pieces  of food are simmered in a minimum amount of liquid.   The liquid  which  may be water, stock or prepared sauce,  is  always served with the food.  The stew is cooked in a dish with  tightly fitted lid, either on top of the stove or inside the oven.

Heat Transfer

Heat is conducted through the cooking utensil and to the surfaces of  the food in contact with it.  It is carried to all  areas  of the  cooking  liquid by convection currents,  heat  reaching  the surface of the food then passes through it by conduction the food then cooks.

Types of Stew

1.      Blanquette:  A  stew cooked in stocks from which for sauce is made.

2.      Fricassee:    A  stew in which the meat, poultry or firm is cooked in the sauce.

3.      Navarin:. Refers to the rich dark lamb stew.

4.      Ragout:  Stew brown beef stew.

5.      Bouillabuisse : A heavily fish are shell fish  with safforn. A traditional specially of France

Advantages

1.      Stewing is economical as cheaper cuts of meat may be used.

2.      There  is little loss of nutrients or moisture as  any  juices which  escape  from the meat or vegetable become part  of  the sauce.

Disadvantages

1.      Stews  must be cooked for a long period to  ensure  tenderness  and full flavour.

2.      Some stews lack 'bite' and contrast in texture.

Safety Rules

1.      Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food and liquid  to prevent spillages.

2.      It is important to avoid scalds from steam when removing  lids to check consistency.

3.      Safe  practice  should be observed in  operational  procedure, clothing and footwear.